Bones and Joints
Axial
Lower extremity
Upper extremity
Below is a list of joints; this is not a comprehensive list of joints in human anatomy but rather the joints of the major target muscles in Art of Anatomy‘s program design. Within each description, you’ll find the approximate values of movement capable of the joint listed. Refer to Basic Movement Patterns if you are unfamiliar with the movements, by name.
Axial joints
In anatomy, the axial skeleton consists of the bones of the skull and face, spine, and ribs. Axial does not include any bones in the arms or legs; instead, those bones are described as appendicular skeleton. For the purpose of Art of Anatomy, only the spinal joints are listed for the axial skeleton.
The spinal column is made of many segments called vertebrae. Movement of the spine is not described by the movement of the individual segments; rather, for gross movement patterns, each region of the spine is described as a single unit. The three regions of the spine are the cervical spine (neck), the thoracic spine (upper back), and the lumbar spine (lower back). Also part of the spinal column is the sacrum (which connects to the pelvis) and the coccyx (the tailbone).
Bones
Movements
Each spinal region’s movement ranges are unique; the cervical spine has the most movement, and the thoracic spine has the least movement. The movements are listed below with approximate maximum values of movement from a neutral (anatomical) position.
Cervical
Reference: Swinkels R, Swinkels-Meewisse, I. Normal Values for Cervical Range of Motion. Spine, 2014;39(5):362–367. https://doi:10.1097/brs.0000000000000158
Thoracic
Thoracic spine movement, alone, is limited due to the presence of the ribs. For example, the thoracic spine may flex and extend a total of 30-45°, and both rotation and lateral flexion exhibit even less movement.
Lumbar
Reference: Troke M, Moore AP, Maillardet FJ, Cheek E. A normative database of lumbar spine ranges of motion. Manual Therapy. 2005;10(3):198–206. https://doi:10.1016/j.math.2004.10.004
Target Muscles
Cervical and thoracic spine prime mover muscles are not included; Art of Anatomy prioritizes muscles to be trained for a goal physique, and most of the muscles that move the cervical and thoracic spine are not specifically trained for a target physique. The exception to this trend is the upper trapezius; however, this muscle is not trained by neck movement in the Art of Anatomy routine.
Lower extremity
The lower extremity refers to the legs. Each lower extremity consists of 30 bones forming many joints; however, for the purpose of Art of Anatomy, we will only focus on three unique joints: hip, knee, and ankle.
The hips are where your lower extremities attach to the rest of your body. Despite having an enormous capacity for movement, the hip joints are also the most stable joints in the human body due to the deep “ball and socket” design reinforced by a labrum, ligaments, and muscles. The anatomy of the hip joint is the pelvis (through a cavity called the acetabulum) connecting to the femur (the thigh bone), and the anatomical name for the joint is the femoroacetabular joint.
Bones
Movements
The movements are listed below with approximate maximum values of movement from a neutral (anatomical) position.
* Adduction of the hip is minimal from a neutral starting position. Generally, adduction of the hip is only easily measurable when starting from an abducted position, and thus that range of motion is approximately 45°
** “Normal” values for joint movements are generally reserved for the six basic joint movements
Reference: Roach KE, Miles TP. Normal Hip and Knee Active Range of Motion: The Relationship to Age. Physical Therapy. 1991;71(9):656–665. https://doi:10.1093/ptj/71.9.656
Target Muscles
There are additional muscles that cross the hips that are either not listed as “prime movers” or are not specifically targeted for a bodybuilding routine: sartorius (will be added in the future), iliopsoas, tensor fascia lata, and six external rotator muscles (piriformis, gamellus superior, gamellus inferior, obturator internus, obturator externus, and quadratus femoris).
The knees are the attachment of the thighs to the lower legs, and they are the largest joints in the human body. They are also among the least stable joints in human anatomy. The anatomical name for the knee is tibiofemoral; however, this name is rarely used in conversation. Although important for the function of the quadriceps on the knee joint, as well as its depiction in the image, the patella (knee cap) is not part of the knee joint structure.
Bones
The fibula (the 2nd bone of the lower leg) and the patella (the knee cap) are not part of the knee joint.
Movements
The movements are listed below with approximate maximum values of movement from a neutral (anatomical) position.
The knee can also rotate slightly both internally and externally but only when the joint is already in a flexed position.
Reference: Roach KE, Miles TP. Normal Hip and Knee Active Range of Motion: The Relationship to Age. Physical Therapy. 1991;71(9):656–665. https://doi:10.1093/ptj/71.9.656
Target Muscles
In addition to the prime mover muscles, the gastrocnemius of the calf and two small muscles behind the knee called the popliteus and plantaris may also assist in knee flexion. Furthermore, the gracilis (an adductor muscle) and the sartorius (the long, strap-like muscle in the anterior thigh) also cross the knee and may assist in flexion of the knee when the hip is flexed in front of the body. The iliotibial (IT) band crosses the knee, as well; however, the IT-band stabilizes the lateral knee and does not provide significant movement.
The ankles attach the feet to the legs. The anatomical name for the ankle is talocrural joint; however, the anatomical name is not commonly used. Although there are seven tarsal* bones (the bones that make up the base of your foot, including your heel), only one of them is part of the ankle joint. Both bones of the leg, the tibia and fibula, attach to the talus to form the ankle joint. The ankle is described as a mortise joint; anatomically speaking, it is a hinge joint.
Bones
Movements
The movements are listed below with approximate maximum values of movement from a neutral (anatomical) position.
Reference: Brockett C, Chapman G. Biomechanics of the ankle. Orthopaedics and Trauma. 2016;30(3):232-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mporth.2016.04.015
Target Muscles
Many muscles cross the ankles, but most of them are smaller muscles that are not specifically trained as target muscles in Art of Anatomy. The additional muscles include the tibialis anterior, peroneal muscle group, and deeper and smaller muscles that move the ankle and toes.
Upper extremity
The upper extremity refers to the arms. Each upper extremity consists of 30 bones forming many joints; however, for the purpose of Art of Anatomy, we will only focus on five unique joints: scapulae* shoulder, elbow, forearm, and wrist.
*The scapulae are not joints, but their movement is described by their sliding/gliding nature across the posterior thorax.
The scapulae are unique in their movements and in the way they attach to the remainder of the body. For their connection to the trunk, the scapulae only attach to the clavicle (the collar bone—forming the acromioclavicular or AC joint), but their movements are not described through this joint.
The movement of the scapula actually exists around the sternoclavicular joint (SC joint) where your collar bone attaches to your breast bone, but the movement patterns are also not described by the movement around the SC joint.
Instead, the movements of the scapulae are defined by how they move against the thorax—patterns commonly described as scapulothoracic rhythm. Each scapula moves along and is held against the posterior thorax by the six muscles listed below; in addition, there are eleven other muscles attaching to each scapula, but these are all muscles of the shoulder (with one exception).
Bones
Movements
Scapular movement patterns are not described by the movements of the SC and AC joints but rather by their sliding/gliding along the thorax. Therefore, the movements are difficult to standardize a measurement. There are six basic scapular movements:
Target Muscles
*The pectoralis minor and levator scapula also move the scapulae but are not targeted for training.
The eleven other muscles that attach to the scapula are muscles of shoulder movement (except the omohyoid): supraspinatus, infraspinatus, subscapularis, and teres minor (these first four are the rotator cuff); deltoids, long head of the triceps brachii, both heads of the biceps brachii, latissimus dorsi, teres major, coracobrachialis, and omohyoid.
The shoulders are where your arms attach to your body, and they are the most mobile joints in the human body. Based on the bony anatomy, they are not inherently stable; however, the labrum (a thick piece of cartilage), the four muscles of the rotator cuff, and seven other muscles help to create a more stable environment. The shoulder joint connects the shoulder blade to the arm, and the anatomical name for the joint is the glenohumeral joint.
Bones
Movements
The movements are listed below with approximate maximum values of movement from a neutral (anatomical) position.
* Referenced from: Bakhsh W, Nicandri G. Anatomy and Physical Examination of the Shoulder. Sports Med Arthrosc Rev. 2018;26(3):10-22. https://10.1097/JSA.0000000000000202
** These two values are based on the movement beginning from 90° of shoulder abduction
^ Maximum values for joint movements are generally reserved for the six basic joint movements
Reference: Gill H, Gustafsson L, Hawcroft L, McKenna K. Shoulder Joint Range of Motion in Healthy Adults Aged 20 to 49 Years. British Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2006;69(12):556-561. https://10.1177/030802260606901204
Target Muscles
*The teres major is a prime mover of the shoulder joint for adduction; however, it is not a muscle that is specifically targeted in the Art of Anatomy program design as it is trained efficiently by other movements.
There are seven additional muscles that cross the shoulders that are not listed here as target muscles: coracobrachialis, the long head of the triceps brachii, both heads of the biceps brachii, and four rotator cuff muscles—supraspinatus, infraspinatus, subscapularis, and teres minor.
The elbows are where your forearms attach to your arms. The anatomical name for the elbow is humeroulnar, but this name is rarely used in conversation.
Although the radius (the 2nd forearm bone) is adjacent to the ulna, it does not articulate directly to the humerus and is therefore not part of the elbow joint. Instead, it forms the joint that allows you to rotate your forearm.
Bones
Movements
The movements are listed below with approximate maximum values of movement from a neutral (anatomical) position. Note: rotation of the forearm (pronation and supination) does not occur at the elbow but rather at the proximal radioulnar joint.
*Some individuals are able to extend beyond 0°, and this hyperextension may reach up to 10°. Absent of injury or ailment, this would still be considered normal range of motion for those individuals.
Islam SU, Glover A, MacFarlane R, Mehta N, Waseem M. The Anatomy and biomechanics of the elbow. Open Orthopaedics Journal. 2020;14:95-100. https://10.2174/1874325002014010095
Target Muscles
*There are other muscles that either flex or extend the elbow—namely the brachialis (flexion) and anconeus (assists in extension)—but these muscles are not the specific target muscles of Art of Anatomy‘s training. The forearm flexor and extensor groups may also assist in flexion and extension, but they are generally not targeted using elbow joint movements.
The joints of the forearms are where the two bones of the forearms attach to each other. There are two different places where these bones attach: proximally (near the elbow) and distally (near the wrist). The proximal radioulnar joints allow rotation of the forearm.
The proximal radioulnar joint is the only joint in the human body that exclusively performs rotation. Other joints that rotate (e.g., shoulder and hip) can perform other actions.
Bones
Movements
The movements are listed below with approximate maximum values of movement from a neutral (anatomical) position.
* From anatomical position, the forearm is already in a position of full supination.
Arman N, Oktay AB, Tarakci D, Tarakci E, Akgul YS. The validity of an objective measurement method using the Lap Motion Controller for fingers, wrists, and forearms ranges of motion. Hand Surgery and Rehabilitation. 2021;40(4):394-399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hansur.2021.03.007
Target Muscles
*These three muscles are involved in the rotation of the forearm, but they are not specifically targets of Art of Anatomy‘s program design.
The wrists are where the hands connect to the forearms. The majority of the muscles in the forearms are actually movers of the wrists vs. movers of the forearms, themselves. The anatomical name for the wrist is the radiocarpal joint, but this is an uncommon name in conversation.
The wrist is formed by three carpal bones and the distal end of the radius (note that the generated image is not anatomically accurate as there are too many carpal bones).
Bones
Movements
The movements are listed below with approximate maximum values of movement from a neutral (anatomical) position.
Arman N, Oktay AB, Tarakci D, Tarakci E, Akgul YS. The validity of an objective measurement method using the Lap Motion Controller for fingers, wrists, and forearms ranges of motion. Hand Surgery and Rehabilitation. 2021;40(4):394-399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hansur.2021.03.007
Target Muscles
There are multiple muscles in each group that move various joints across the wrist and fingers.
Bones
The following is a short list of bones involved in the most common exercises outlined throughout Art of Anatomy. Most often, there are 206 bones in the human body, but to understand the anatomy and exercises on this website, it is not necessary to learn all 206.
Carpals
The carpals are the bones at the base of your hand. There are eight carpal bones—three of which attach to the radius to form the wrist joint. There are two rows of carpal bones; each row is listed from the thumb side to the pinky side of the palm:
Proximal: scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform
Distal: trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate
Coccyx
The coccyx is the “tail bone.” It is the final bone of the spinal column, but it does not have any weight bearing properties. There are a few muscles and some connective tissue that connect to the coccyx, but the human tail bone, itself, is not a functional joint in the same way it is for animals like dogs or cats.
Fibula
The smaller bone on the outer portion of the lower leg; the fibula is non-weight bearing. It attaches to the tibia at both ends and covers the outer portion of the ankle joint.
Pelvis
The pelvis is the large grouping of bones at the base of the trunk; it consists of two bones with three parts:
- Ilium: the upper-most portion of the pelvic bones; the “wing” shapes
- Ischium: the bottom-most portion of the pelvic bones where you sit
- Pubis: the anterior portion of the pelvis
Radius
In anatomical position (palm facing upwards), the radius is the bone of the forearm positioned on the thumb side.
The radius attaches to 3 carpal bones (scaphoid, lunate, and triquetrum) to form the wrist. The radius also attaches to the ulna—the other forearm bone—to form the radioulnar joints; these joints allows you to turn your palm upwards (supination) and downwards (pronation); the radius is the bone that rotates.
Sternum
The breast bone, attaching to the clavicle, first rib (direct joint), and the remaining rib cartilages on each side.
Tarsals
The tarsals are the bones at the base of your foot. There are seven tarsal bones—only one of which, the talus, attaches to the bones of the leg (tibia and fibula) to form the ankle joint.
The seven tarsal bones are named talus, calcaneus (heel bone), navicular, 1st cuneiform, 2nd cuneiform, 3rd cuneiform, and cuboid.
Ulna
In anatomical position (palm facing upwards), the ulna is the bone of the forearm positioned on the pinky side. It attaches to the humerus to form the elbow joint.
The ulna attaches to the radius to form the radioulnar joints; these joints allows you to turn your palm upwards (supination) and downwards (pronation); however, the ulna does not rotate.
Vertebrae
The vertebrae are the individual bones of the spinal column. There are five parts of the spinal column, three of which have individual bones:
- Neck region: 7 cervical vertebrae (C1-C7)
- Mid-back region: 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1-T12)
- Lower back region: 5 lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5)
Beneath the lumbar vertebrae, there are two more bones—the sacrum and the coccyx.
- The sacrum is a fusion of four individual bones to form one, large, triangular shaped bone that sits between the two halves of the pelvis (called the ilium) forming the sacroiliac joints
- The coccyx is a fusion of three individual bones to form the final bone of the entire spinal column; this bone is commonly called the tail bone.